Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala is an entomopathogenic fungus — a parasite that hunts, kills, and then erupts from the bodies of adult wasps — with a documented host range spanning bees, paper wasps, yellowjackets, and even the Asian giant hornet across four continents. It produces a slender, cream-to-yellow stroma up to 10 cm tall with a distinctive rounded head, making it one of the more striking zombie-fungus discoveries a forager can encounter in the field. It is the namesake species of one of the four major evolutionary clades within the entire genus Ophiocordyceps, and the only published agar culture data show it grows significantly better on insect-supplemented media than on plain nutrient agar — a telling reflection of its obligate entomopathogenic biology.
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala (Klotzsch ex Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora, 2007 — Ophiocordycipitaceae — Hypocreales
What Is Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala?
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala is an obligate entomopathogenic fungus — one that lives exclusively by infecting and killing insects, specifically adult wasps and bees. Unlike many entomopathogenic species that target larvae or pupae, this fungus attacks fully grown adult social wasps in the field, colonizing the living host before emerging as a pale cream stroma from the corpse. It has no established English common name in any mycological database or peer-reviewed publication; "wasp cordyceps" and "zombie wasp fungus" circulate in hobbyist communities as informal descriptors, but neither has been standardized in the scientific literature.
The species occupies a genuinely unusual position in the Ophiocordyceps genus: it is the namesake of one of the four major evolutionary clades within the entire genus, meaning the entire O. sphecocephala clade — a distinct branch of the tree of life — is named after this species. The Sung et al. (2007) molecular revision that reclassified hundreds of cordyceps species from the old catch-all genus Cordyceps into the new family Ophiocordycipitaceae used multilocus phylogenetics to identify O. sphecocephala and its closest relatives as a well-supported clade primarily characterized by Hymenostilbe-type anamorphs (asexual reproductive structures) and a predominant association with wasp hosts.
Its documented host range — 16 species across 4 insect families, from honeybees to Asian giant hornets to European yellowjackets to paper wasps in South America — makes it one of the most host-generalist wasp-infecting cordyceps known. That breadth of host range across four continents, combined with the cosmopolitan distribution of the social Vespidae it parasitizes, suggests Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala has evolved a relatively flexible infection mechanism compared to narrower specialist species.
Interested in this species? Out-Grow carries a liquid culture.
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala Liquid CultureThe species was first described from Cuban material collected by the naturalist C. Wright. The original description was formalized by Berkeley and Curtis in 1868 (published 1869) in the Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany, under the then-current name Cordyceps sphecocephala. The type specimen is preserved at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, under accession K-M000160299. It was transferred to Ophiocordyceps in 2007 as part of the Sung et al. molecular revision — the same study that moved the famous Chinese caterpillar fungus to O. sinensis and established the modern family Ophiocordycipitaceae.
How Is Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala Classified?
| Rank | Name |
|---|---|
| Kingdom | Fungi |
| Phylum | Ascomycota |
| Class | Sordariomycetes |
| Subclass | Hypocreomycetidae |
| Order | Hypocreales |
| Family | Ophiocordycipitaceae |
| Genus | Ophiocordyceps |
| Species | Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala (Klotzsch ex Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora |
The accepted name is Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala (Klotzsch ex Berk.) G.H. Sung, J.M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora, established in the 2007 multi-gene phylogenetic revision published in Studies in Mycology. The basionym is Cordyceps sphecocephala (Klotzsch ex Berk.) Berk. & M.A. Curtis (1868/1869). The epithet sphecocephala derives from the Greek sphex (wasp) and kephalē (head) — literally "wasp-headed," describing the rounded capitulum that distinguishes the fruiting body. GBIF Species ID: 2560551. NCBI Taxonomy ID: 153664.
The key synonym encountered in older literature is Cordyceps sphecocephala, which remains the name found in most pre-2007 collection databases and older publications. Older asexual morph names (Hymenostilbe spp.) that historically described the conidial stage are now subsumed under the single-name system adopted by the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi and Plants.
The four clades of Ophiocordyceps: The Sung et al. 2007 revision divided Ophiocordyceps into four major infrageneric clades: (1) the Hirsutella clade (the largest, predominantly ant and generalist insect parasites), (2) the O. sobolifera clade (cicada and bug parasites), (3) the O. sphecocephala clade (predominantly wasp parasites, Hymenostilbe-associated anamorphs), and (4) the O. ravenelii clade. Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala names one of the four foundational branches of the entire genus — its evolutionary position is as the anchor species of a major lineage, not a peripheral member of the group.
There is no active species-level nomenclatural dispute for O. sphecocephala itself. However, because the broader O. sphecocephala clade continues to yield newly described species as molecular surveys expand in tropical regions — particularly Southeast Asia and South America — it is possible that specimens currently identified as O. sphecocephala from distinct geographic regions (Asia vs. Americas vs. Europe) represent cryptic species when fully analyzed. ITS alone is insufficient for reliable species delimitation in Ophiocordyceps; a five-gene multilocus approach (nrSSU, nrLSU, tef-1α, rpb1, rpb2) is required for authoritative identification.
How Do You Identify Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala?
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala produces a stroma (the composite fruiting structure of the ascomycete) that emerges directly from the body of a dead adult wasp. The characteristic profile — a long, wiry stipe topped with a distinctly rounded, egg-shaped (ovoid) fertile head — gives it a "lollipop" or "pin-head" silhouette unlike the orange clubs of Cordyceps militaris or the thread-like emergences of ant-infecting species.
The most reliable single identification character is the host: an adult wasp (not a larva, not a caterpillar, not an ant) with one or more pale cream stromata emerging from its body. The ovoid capitulum distinguishes O. sphecocephala from the flat or elongated heads of many ant-infecting species, and its pale color separates it cleanly from the vivid orange of Cordyceps militaris. Field reports describe the perithecium-studded capitulum surface as resembling the texture of a noni fruit — pitted and dimpled as the embedded perithecia mature.
Lookalike Species
Ophiocordyceps ditmarii
Parasitizes Vespidae (wasps) in Europe with overlapping host family. Host range and European distribution can overlap significantly with O. sphecocephala. Morphological distinction is unreliable — molecular confirmation (multilocus) is recommended for published records from European material.
Ophiocordyceps humbertii
Parasitizes Vespa and Mutilla in Africa and South America — overlapping host genera and geography. Different capitulum morphology and distinct geographic records; molecular confirmation needed when range overlaps.
Ophiocordyceps unilateralis s.l.
The famous zombie ant fungus. Grows from ant bodies (Camponotus), not wasps. Morphologically distinct capitulum and host type makes confusion unlikely in the field — but both may co-occur in tropical forest leaf litter.
Cordyceps militaris
Vivid orange, emerges from lepidopteran pupae underground, no ovoid head. Entirely different color, host type, and habitat. No realistic confusion for an informed observer.
ITS barcoding is insufficient for species confirmation in this genus. Multiple closely related Ophiocordyceps species parasitizing Vespidae cannot be reliably separated by ITS alone. A five-gene multilocus approach (nrSSU, nrLSU, tef-1α, rpb1, rpb2) is required for authoritative identification. Field identifications of O. sphecocephala without molecular support, particularly in Europe where O. ditmarii co-occurs, should be treated as provisional. GenBank sequences labeled O. sphecocephala based on ITS alone should be approached with the same caution.
Where Does Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala Grow?
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala is a cosmopolitan species with confirmed records across Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas — effectively wherever social wasps of the family Vespidae establish colonies in sufficient density. Its geographic footprint closely mirrors that of its social Hymenoptera hosts, though formal range mapping is absent from the published literature.
| Region | Confirmed Presence | Key Records |
|---|---|---|
| Africa | Kenya, Congo region | Moureau 1949; hosts include Apis sp., Pelopeus sp., Belonogaster sp. |
| Asia | Japan, Korea, China | Kobayasi 1939, Kawamura 1955; hosts include Vespa mandarinia (Asian giant hornet) |
| Europe | Slovakia, France | Kautman & Kautmanová 2009, Mornand et al. 2012; host Vespula vulgaris |
| South America | Brazil, Guyana region | Multiple Polistes and Polybia hosts; diverse South American Polistinae |
| North America | Southern US (probable wider range) | West Virginia field observations; no formal range study published |
| Type locality | Cuba | C. Wright collection, Kew K-M000160299 (1860s) |
All confirmed hosts are adult-stage insects — a distinctive ecological characteristic that separates O. sphecocephala from many other entomopathogenic cordyceps that target larvae or pupae. This means infected individuals are active, mobile foraging workers at the time of infection, and death likely occurs in the field rather than in the nest. Stromata emerge from fallen or grounded adult corpses at or near the soil surface and in leaf litter, though hosts attached to vegetation have also been documented.
The breadth of documented host associations — 16 species across Apidae, Crabronidae, Sphecidae, and Vespidae — is exceptional. Notable hosts include Vespa mandarinia (the Asian giant hornet) and Vespula vulgaris (the common European yellowjacket), suggesting the fungus can infect both large tropical hornets and smaller temperate wasp species. In temperate regions, fruiting likely follows the activity season of host wasp colonies, peaking in late summer through fall when colonies are at maximum worker density. No systematic phenological study has been published for this species specifically.
Research gap — population genetics and geographic structure: No molecular population genetics study has been conducted for Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala. Given that collections span four continents and multiple host families, it is unknown whether the species represents a single globally distributed lineage or a complex of cryptic species with restricted ranges. This question has direct implications for interpreting the breadth of documented host associations — a single flexible pathogen vs. a complex of host-specific specialists sharing a morphotype.
Can You Cultivate Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala?
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala is an obligate entomopathogen of adult wasps. Producing fruiting bodies requires a living or freshly killed adult wasp host, successful fungal infection and colonization, host death and mummification, and stroma emergence from the cadaver. No published protocol exists for inducing fruiting on any inanimate substrate — not grain, not sawdust, not agar — and no experimental attempt to achieve this is documented in the peer-reviewed literature.
This places O. sphecocephala in the same category as Ophiocordyceps sinensis — the famous Chinese caterpillar fungus — which also cannot be fruited on artificial media despite decades of research and extraordinary economic incentive. The biological barrier is not a gap in cultivation technique but a fundamental feature of obligate biotrophic entomopathogen biology: these fungi have co-evolved with their specific hosts and require host-derived signals, immune environments, and tissues to complete their life cycles.
What "liquid culture" means for this species: The mycelium in Out-Grow's liquid culture syringe is the vegetative hyphal phase of O. sphecocephala — the stage that can be maintained and expanded in laboratory media. This is genuinely different from the fruiting body that emerges from a wasp. The liquid culture cannot be used to grow stromata on grain or agar. What it can do is covered in detail below.
Agar Culture Behavior — What the Evidence Shows
The only published agar culture characterization for O. sphecocephala comes from a 2006 Korean study (Nam et al.). Key findings:
Out-Grow's lab notes confirm this organic nitrogen dependence: MEA plates colonize in approximately 14–28 days at 68–73°F, and the species shows significantly reduced mycelial yield on low-nitrogen media. The practical guidance — use media containing yeast extract, peptone, or insect-based components — is consistent with the Nam et al. peer-reviewed findings.
What the Liquid Culture Can Realistically Achieve
| Use Case | Feasibility | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Agar expansion (MEA, enriched PDA) | ✅ Feasible | Use nitrogen-enriched media; expect slow growth (14–28 days per 100mm plate); plain PDA is suboptimal |
| Culture maintenance and archival | ✅ Standard | Wrap plates in parafilm; store at 35–43°F; transfer every 2–3 months using edge mycelium |
| Mycelial biomass for secondary metabolite research | ✅ Feasible | Published chemical studies (Kornsakulkarn et al.) used culture isolate BCC 2661 in submerged fermentation |
| Research inoculation of wasp hosts | ✅ Documented pathway | Entomological research context; requires living host insects and appropriate biocontainment |
| Fruiting body production on grain or wood | ❌ Not possible | No published protocol; requires living wasp host; no exception known |
| Stroma production on agar | ❌ Not possible | Fruiting requires host tissue signals not present in any laboratory medium |
About the Out-Grow Liquid Culture
Out-Grow's Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala liquid culture is a 10cc syringe of viable mycelium maintained in standard culture medium — the vegetative phase that can be expanded on enriched agar or grown in submerged fermentation for research and educational purposes.
For agar expansion: use MEA, enriched PDA (supplemented with yeast extract and peptone), or insect-supplemented media variants. Expect white, moderately dense mycelium colonizing a 100mm plate in 14–28 days at 68–73°F. Growth is significantly slower than Cordyceps militaris and requires organic nitrogen sources to achieve reliable density. Plain PDA produces the weakest results of tested media.
For storage: wrap colonized plates in parafilm and store at 35–43°F in darkness. Plan transfers every 2–3 months, using edge mycelium for new master plates. Store the liquid culture syringe refrigerated in cool, dark conditions and shake gently before use.
This species is cultivated for research, study, and mycological exploration purposes. It is not intended for culinary consumption. For those interested in the biology of entomopathogenic fungi, secondary metabolite chemistry, or the broader Ophiocordyceps genus, this culture provides direct access to one of the most ecologically remarkable obligate insect pathogens documented across four continents.
What Bioactive Compounds Does Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala Contain?
The chemistry of Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala is at an early stage of characterization compared to commercially cultivated species like Cordyceps militaris. Published chemical work is limited to a small number of studies from culture isolates. No whole-genome sequence exists for this species, meaning biosynthetic gene cluster analysis — the approach that has driven compound discovery in C. militaris — has not been applied. All evidence below is in vitro unless stated otherwise; no human clinical data exists.
Sphaeropsidone & Related Compounds In vitro
A phthalide-type compound and structurally related metabolites isolated from culture (isolate BCC 2661) by Kornsakulkarn et al. Showed antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis and antifungal activity in cell-based assays. Evidence quality: single study, in vitro only, limited chemical characterization published in abstract-accessible sources.
Uncharacterized Secondary Metabolites Limited data
The Out-Grow product page references bioactive compounds with potential anti-asthmatic and anti-cancer properties. The primary literature basis for these claims was not fully recoverable in accessible publications for this dossier — these should be treated as preliminary/unverified pending review of the primary source. Evidence quality: insufficient to assess.
Cordycepin (expected but unconfirmed)
Cordycepin (3′-deoxyadenosine) is produced by Cordyceps militaris (Cordycipitaceae) via the cns1–cns4 gene cluster. Whether O. sphecocephala (Ophiocordycipitaceae — a different family) produces cordycepin has not been confirmed in published analytical chemistry. Conflating the two families' chemistry is a common error in supplement marketing.
Secondary Metabolite Research Potential
Entomopathogenic fungi in Ophiocordycipitaceae are known collectively to produce diverse polyketides, non-ribosomal peptides, and alkaloids. Without a genome sequence or systematic chemical survey, the full secondary metabolite potential of O. sphecocephala remains uncharacterized — a genuine research opportunity.
No whole genome sequence exists for Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala. As of the research conducted for this dossier, no whole-genome sequence for O. sphecocephala or any member of the O. sphecocephala clade has been published or deposited in NCBI Datasets. This means biosynthetic gene cluster analysis — the method that identified and characterized the cordycepin pathway in C. militaris — has never been applied to this species. The compound profile is therefore characterized at an early, exploratory stage. Health claims extending the C. militaris evidence base to this species are not supported by any published data.
Is Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala Safe to Eat?
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala has no culinary tradition and is not consumed as food in any documented cultural context. Unlike Cordyceps militaris or huitlacoche, it has no history of human consumption that would provide a traditional safety evidence base. The Out-Grow liquid culture and culture plate products are explicitly not intended for culinary use.
No published toxicology data for O. sphecocephala or its culture-derived compounds were identified in peer-reviewed literature. The only compounds characterized from culture isolates (sphaeropsidone-related metabolites) have demonstrated in vitro antimicrobial activity — which is consistent with general caution rather than established dietary safety. The reference to potential anti-cancer properties in some commercial descriptions reflects preliminary in vitro research that has not been replicated or validated in human contexts.
This product is for cultivation, research, and mycological study purposes only. It is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease. Consult a healthcare professional before using any fungi-derived products for health purposes.
What Makes Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala Remarkable?
1. It Names One of the Four Foundational Branches of Its Entire Genus
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala is the namesake species of the O. sphecocephala clade — one of only four major infrageneric groupings recognized within the entire genus Ophiocordyceps, which contains over 200 species. This means the species is not a minor member of its genus but an anchor point: the clade bearing its name is one of the four pillars of Ophiocordyceps evolutionary structure. Its phylogenetic sequences (deposited as voucher OSC 110998 in the Sung et al. 2007 study) have been used as an outgroup reference in subsequent landmark studies, including the epitypification of the zombie ant fungus O. unilateralis. It is, in a real sense, a reference organism for the entire family.
2. The Broadest Host Range of Any Wasp-Infecting Cordyceps
With 16 documented host species across 4 insect families — Apidae, Crabronidae, Sphecidae, and Vespidae — O. sphecocephala is the most host-generalist wasp-infecting cordyceps known, exceeded only by the cosmopolitan ant-infecting complex O. unilateralis in breadth of association. Its hosts range from solitary bees (Xylocopa carpenter bees) to the world's largest hornet (Vespa mandarinia, the Asian giant hornet) to the common European yellowjacket (Vespula vulgaris). Whether this breadth represents a single flexible pathogen or a complex of cryptic specialists sharing a morphotype is an unresolved question that may reshape how the species is understood as molecular surveys expand.
3. An Obligate Adult-Insect Parasite — Rare in Entomopathogenic Cordyceps
Most entomopathogenic cordyceps species target insect larvae or pupae — developmental stages that are immobile, vulnerable, and often underground. Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala attacks fully grown adult wasps — active, mobile, colony-defending insects with elaborate social behaviors. The mechanics of infection in a mobile adult hymenopteran, the timing of behavioral manipulation (if any), and the pathway from initial infection to stroma emergence all remain unstudied in peer-reviewed literature for this specific species. The obligate adult-stage parasitism strategy is itself a biological novelty worth investigation.
4. Insect-Derived Nutrients Drive Mycelial Growth — Even in Culture
The only published agar culture study (Nam et al. 2006) found that O. sphecocephala mycelium grew significantly better on insect-supplemented media (dried honeybee larva and honeybee adult broths) than on plain PDA. This in vitro finding mirrors the fungus's ecological dependence on insect hosts and suggests that the chemical cues or nutrients derived from insect tissues are not merely a substrate for the host-parasitism phase — they actively promote mycelial vigor even in pure culture. This has practical implications for culture maintenance and is a window into the fungus's nutritional biology.
5. A Research Blank Slate — No Genome, No Population Data, Limited Chemistry
For a species that names one of the four major clades of a genus containing over 200 species, Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala is remarkably understudied. No whole-genome sequence exists. No population genetics study has been conducted. No GC-MS volatile analysis has been published. The secondary metabolite profile is characterized by a single study. The fruiting biology — behavioral manipulation of hosts, infection mechanism, stroma development — has not been studied in this species specifically. The gap between its taxonomic importance (clade namesake, cosmopolitan distribution, broadest host range) and its research depth is one of the largest in commercially available entomopathogenic fungi. Every culture maintained is a potential research contribution.
6. The Last of Us Effect — Public Interest in Zombie Fungi at All-Time High
The HBO series The Last of Us (2023) — based on a fungal zombie apocalypse loosely inspired by the biology of O. unilateralis (the ant zombie fungus) — created an unprecedented surge of public interest in entomopathogenic cordyceps. Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala belongs to the same family, Ophiocordycipitaceae, and the same genus as the ant zombie fungus, and shares the same obligately parasitic life strategy. While O. sphecocephala parasitizes wasps rather than ants, the biology is directly parallel: fungal infection of a living social insect host, behavioral outcomes possibly preceding stroma emergence, and a fruiting body erupting from the corpse. The popular fascination with this biology has created genuine search demand for species in this group — and O. sphecocephala is the wasp-equivalent of what O. unilateralis is to ants.
Also available as a culture plate from Out-Grow.
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala Culture PlateFrequently Asked Questions About Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala
What is Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala and how is it related to the zombie ant fungus?
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala is an entomopathogenic fungus that parasitizes and kills adult wasps, emerging as a pale cream stroma from the host's body. It belongs to the same genus (Ophiocordyceps) and family (Ophiocordycipitaceae) as O. unilateralis — the famous zombie ant fungus that inspired The Last of Us. Where O. unilateralis infects carpenter ants (Camponotus), O. sphecocephala infects adult wasps and bees across 16 documented host species. Both are obligate entomopathogens that must kill a living insect host to complete their life cycle and produce fruiting bodies.
Can Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala be grown on grain or agar like other mushrooms?
The vegetative mycelium can be grown and maintained on enriched agar media — MEA or PDA supplemented with yeast extract and peptone — though growth is notably slow (14–28 days to colonize a 100mm plate) and significantly better on insect-supplemented media than on plain nutrient agar. However, the fruiting body (the stroma that emerges from the wasp) cannot be produced on any artificial substrate. It requires a living or freshly killed adult wasp host. This is a fundamental biological constraint, not a technique gap — the same barrier applies to Ophiocordyceps sinensis (the Chinese caterpillar fungus), which also cannot be fruited on artificial media after decades of research.
What is the Out-Grow liquid culture used for if fruiting bodies can't be grown?
The liquid culture provides viable vegetative mycelium of O. sphecocephala for agar expansion and culture maintenance, mycelial biomass production for secondary metabolite research, and as inoculum for entomological research involving experimental wasp infection in controlled settings. It is an access point to a genuinely rare and understudied obligate entomopathogen — the clade namesake of one of the four major lineages in Ophiocordyceps — for mycology enthusiasts, researchers, and educators interested in the biology of zombie fungi. It is not suitable for fruiting body production and not intended for culinary use.
Where does Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala grow in the wild?
Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala has a cosmopolitan distribution wherever social Vespidae (wasps) are present — confirmed records span Africa (Kenya, Congo), Asia (Japan, Korea, China), Europe (Slovakia, France), and the Americas (Cuba — type locality, Brazil, Guyana, and the southern United States). In temperate regions it likely fruits in late summer through fall, following the peak activity season of wasp colonies. Finding it in the wild requires searching in habitats where social wasps forage, inspecting fallen or grounded adult wasps — particularly in leaf litter and at forest edges — for the characteristic cream-colored, lollipop-shaped stroma.
Is Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala the same species as the one called "wasp cordyceps" online?
Yes — "wasp cordyceps" and "zombie wasp fungus" are informal descriptors used in hobbyist communities (Reddit, Facebook forager groups, social media) to refer to this species. Neither term is standardized in any mycological database, peer-reviewed publication, or nomenclatural authority. The species has no formally recognized English common name. When you encounter these informal names online, they typically refer to Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala, though without molecular confirmation, other wasp-infecting Ophiocordyceps species (such as O. ditmarii in Europe) may be included under the same informal umbrella.
How does Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala compare to Cordyceps militaris?
They are in different families and have fundamentally different biologies. Cordyceps militaris (Cordycipitaceae) parasitizes moth and butterfly larvae/pupae underground and can be successfully cultivated on grain-based substrates without any insect host — it's a commercially farmed supplement species producing high concentrations of cordycepin. Ophiocordyceps sphecocephala (Ophiocordycipitaceae) parasitizes adult wasps and cannot be fruited on any artificial substrate. It is more closely related to the zombie ant fungus (O. unilateralis) than to C. militaris. The chemistry, ecology, and cultivation biology of the two species are entirely distinct.